Cardiac output (CO), stroke volume (SV), and total peripheral resistance (TPR) are among important hemodynamic parameters to be monitored and assessed in critically ill patients, ambulatory patients, as well as patients undergoing surgical procedures. CO and SV are valuable indicators of mechanical/pathological/physiological status of a subject's heart. TPR is a measure of a subject's vascoconstriction ability associated with certain pathophysiological conditions. Several techniques have been developed to measure or estimate one or more of these hemodynamic parameters. (See for example R. Mukkamala et al., “Continuous cardiac output monitoring by peripheral blood pressure waveform analysis,” IEEE Trans Biomed Eng, vol. 53, pp. 459-67, Market 2006; W. Ganz et al., “A new technique for measurement of cardiac output by thermodilution in man,” Am J Cardiol, vol. 27, pp. 392-6, April 1971; M. J. Bourgeois et al., “Continuous determination of beat to beat stroke volume from aortic pressure pulses in the dog,” Circ Research, vol. 39, pp. 15-24, July 1976.) Estimation of cardiovascular indices on real-time, non-invasive or minimally-invasive, and beat-to-beat basis would be a useful diagnostic tool for clinical and scientific applications, e.g., in hospital stings for patient care or research settings for determining the efficacy of certain medications.